learntoquestion ltq discussions

What makes a fascist? That is a very difficult question as fascism can be defined and seen in many different ways. Fascism in Germany, Spain, and Italy all looks very different with each of them including different qualities the other doesn’t have. Yet, all the fascist regimes include nationalism, irrationalism, conspiracies and more, says Echo in “Excerpts from Ur-Fascism”. The extreme nationalism exerted by fascist regimes is seen by their extreme pride for their country through marches, symbols, and even changing the architecture of the buildings around them. Along with that people become irrational, losing their ability to think for themselves allowing these fascist leaders to control the masses. Lastly, conspiracies form that circulate and further culminate to an ever growing talk about fascism. These three characteristics represent the most dangerous isms that are commonalities between all the fascist regimes. This is because the combination of the three ends up with a strong dictator, weak masses who follow orders, and a little spice that people can get behind through conspiracy theories. Prior to these fascist regimes each of these societies were experiencing economic debts, depressions, and an unwieldy time in general with looming conflicts of past and future.

Jumping to the Western Hemisphere with the United States, a period of time of which people were as well experiencing economic depression. Yet, the established American democracy and capitalism allowed the United States to not fall victim to fascism. In the present day, the United States experiences some fascist tendencies with Donald Trump being seen as a fascist leader representing the Maga movement. Like other fascist regimes the United States is using immigrants, more specifically Mexicans, as scapegoats for their terror similar to what the Nazi’s did with the Jews. Both of them are using these purifying methods as coverups so they can employ and do other things in secret. Besides the United States, I don’t know much more information about other nations, so I can’t speak about them. I think fascism is so appealing in the United States due to this modern day culture due to an ever evolving economy. People’s money doesn’t go as far, people are fed up with politics, thus people are looking for new drastic changes, which Maga gives to people.

Continuing with the United States, the current climate of it is drastically different from other fascist societies we’ve seen throughout history due to the sheer nature of different political ideologies. The United States large geological size allows it to hold many political ideologies at once and is why democracy prospers in this country. The polarizing democrats of the north and the republican of the south balance out each other, along with the other minute parties which allows the United States to not succumb to a single party system as seen in fascist regimes of the past. I would also say that our democratic society is not immune to fascist ideologies as in the present day with Donald Trump, his political power seems to be increasing exponentially. In recent news, congress is examining whether Trump’s tariffs are constitutional or not, which goes to show that there are no checks on Trump and he is able to exacerbate his will freely.

LTQ Post 5: Fascism in the Modern Age

When trying to understand what makes society fascist it's important to remember that fascism isn't just one idea. Fascism is a mix of different attitudes and behaviors that all work together. In Ur-Fascism, Uberto Eco explains that fascism is made up of certain recognizable traits even if they don't always look exactly the same in every country. Fascist societies usually glorify tradition, reject disagreement, are scared of outsiders and love national decline. When these ideas show up together they create a culture where people are expected to follow the leader without questioning anything.

Some of these characteristics are especially dangerous for normal people. One of the biggest fears is the way that fascism divides us into “Us” and “Them" groups. Once a group is labeled as a threat it becomes easier for the government or the majority to justify controlling them excluding them and even acting in violence. Another dangerous trait is the rejection of pluralism. Pluralism is the idea that only one political viewpoint is accepted. When disagreement is not loyal or patriotic, people are afraid to speak out. In The Psychology of Fascism that authors talk about how people that feel anxious about the future are more likely to accept the strong authoritarian leaders because it makes them feel safe even if it means that they are losing their freedom.

Fascism was easily accepted in society's in the past because people were living in a big crisis. In countries like Germany and Italy after World War I, there was a big economic collapse as well as political instability and embarrassment because they lost the war. Fascist leaders took these fears and took advantage, promising strength, unity and national rebirth. They took complex problems and simplified them to be blamed on specific groups. This message can be very attractive when people feel desperate and hopeless.

The question today is if the US or other countries are showing signs that resemble these past fascist societies. If the US is not a fascist country we can still see some warning signs. There is more polarization in politics, more acceptance of political violence more conspiracy theories and a lot of fear-based rhetoric about immigrants and the changing demographic. Many European countries are seeing similar patterns especially with far right parties. These movements often mix populism, anti-immigrant views and nostalgia for a traditional National identity.

Some characteristics of fascism are appealing to people today for the same reasons they were in the past. When people are very uncertain about the economy, Global conflicts, technology or cultural change they look to people that promise simple confident answers. The idea of a strong leader who will fix everything is comforting, especially when people are not happy with how complicated democracy can be.

The US is not the same as fascist societies from history. American Democratic institutions like courts and independent state governments can make barriers that prevent one leader or one party from getting total control. Even though these institutions are stressed they're very functional making it harder for a fascist rule.

Also not all right political movements are fascist. Critics use the term to describe ideas that they just disagree with. In the National Review article the argument is that they're calling every conservative movement fascist and that's exaggerated and it shuts down true conversation. Some far right movements do have very fascist traits but mainstream conservative ideas are not the same as fascism. At the same time it's still important to be aware when political rhetoric begins to use fear, division, or nationalism extremely because that's how fascism movements start.

While the US is not a fascist society, by being able to understand the characteristics of fascism it helps people look out for early signs that are warning them. Democracies don't protect themselves automatically and people have to see threats and be able to defend their institutions. By looking at past fascist movements it can help us recognize when similar patterns appear today.

In light of recent events like Charlie Kirk’s death, we have revealed an entire empire of true believers that seem almost alien in our democracy. Yes, Kirk’s death was unjust, but the messages he evoked were equally negative. Seeing the sheer amount of people who saw Kirk as almost biblical was quite insane, providing many with similar feelings as the January 6th incident provided. In our government today, we have a leader who claims he can solve every problem with our country. Make it great again, make it healthy again. And then remove the founding principles of a nation of immigrants, allow forever chemicals in pesticides. To the current staffing, they see immigration as opposition to a unified collective of true Americans that are inherently free of corruption because of the color of their skin and the language they speak.

People don’t often speak up about corruption because it does not affect them first hand. Presidents don’t often get gifted planes, politicians with 160 thousand dollar salaries usually do not have over 2 million dollars in stocks. Fascism has built its foundations strong in Silicon valley where the tech bros and the elite work and live (Guardian). Money is the ringleader and the elite are the faults. We are increasingly seeing this shift from the support of a democratic government to that of a leader, Donald Trump. It is undeniable that his motives are unclear and lackluster in critical thinking, but seeing his motives to push for another term, his motives to remain in power and eliminate everyone and everything that he feels goes against him is at the forefront of his plans. Stating that democrats should be punished by death, he isn’t hiding his motives behind thick glass or legal terminology; this is a direct president with direct and negative intentions.

In fascist societies, they shift from mainstream media to government policed propaganda. Did we perhaps see this when Trump removed many left leaning and non-Trump first news publications from White House briefings and press events? The push to remove and label these media companies as corrupt or illegitimate is an attempt to push for complete identity where every misinformed American can then consistently make misinformed decisions. It is undeniable that red states favor red media publications like Fox and even more right leaning media. As such, they have gained this conditioned perception that immigrants are stealing their jobs, stealing their homes, and hurting their kids. They are able to take one statistic of a person of color and through repetition, make it the forefront of any Trumpy’s headspace. “Yes Trump doesn’t like immigrants but do you remember when that one immigrant shot an American woman” They truly believe we are all like this and truly believe that the problem lies with the removal of all immigrants. As if they were not once immigrants. The man in office, married to an immigrant, telling us that immigrants are the problem. The man in office, a convicted felon, telling us the immigrants are gang leaders and threats to our safety. The man in office, claiming to make America great, provided his friends the opportunity to take advantage of stock market deflation for their own personal gains. He is not a man of the people, he is a man of the elite. He plays dirty and cares more about the plating of his toilet than the people of this nation. Don’t get it twisted—this man would try to become a fascist leader and convert our democracy into such given he had the mental capacity to do such a thing.

According to Jason Stanley, there are ten defining tactics of fascism: the mythic past, propaganda, anti-intellectualism, unreality, hierarchy, victimhood, law and order, sexual anxiety, sodom and gomorrah, and arbeit macht frei. While not all of these need to be present for a society to be present, it seems as if at least one of those concepts is always there. Of these characteristics, the most prevalent is propaganda. It doesn’t matter where you are or what your cause is, propaganda will always be there in some form. It’s all over societies that wouldn’t even be considered fascist, so it’s not enough to be considered fascism alone. There needs to be more to fit that definition. Hierarchy and victimhood are the two pieces that are really necessary for a society to be considered fascist. More often than not, hierarchy begins with an outsider group that sees themselves as better than society. From there, others join to feel equally empowered and at some point, a singular leader will take control. Having a figurehead may seem like a good thing as they likely understand the concerns of their people, but that’s not usually how it goes. Leaders tend to overuse their individual powers and by the time that is happening, fascism has likely taken over the nation.

These characteristics have the potential to seriously harm ordinary people, namely the idea of victimhood. Fascism is built on the idea of a clearly defined enemy which is usually based on race. The most obvious example of this was Jewish people in Nazi Germany. Jewish people were in such danger because the rest of the nation was being fed lies and propaganda that they were the reason for all of Germany's problems. While they were the most at danger physically, the common people of Germany also had their individual freedom basically removed. If one were to stand up against the nation, they would likely be killed or otherwise suppressed. As Kenneth Feigenbaum’s BYU study puts it, “The character structure is formed by socio-economic processes, and it anchors and perpetuates these processes. Man’s biopathic character structure is, as it were, the fossilization of the authoritarian process of history. It is the biophysical reproduction of mass suppression”. Victimhood is dangerous not just for the real victims, but also for their sympathizers.

Fascism was so appealing to societies of the past, particularly after World War I, because the world is in a constant state of motion and fascism claims to provide real stability in its place. Italy, Spain, and Germany were all the largest offenders of fascism, and it makes sense when you see just how bad they were hurt by war. When those nations found themselves in stagnant democracies, the people could easily justify fascism by arguing that making some changes is better than none at all. The same can be said for many underdeveloped countries in the modern world. Corruption can be seen in so many leaders, however all of them defend their actions by claiming that it is for the betterment of society. At its core, that just what fascism is: progress by any means possible.

The term fascism has been a common buzzword thrown around, especially during such a time of civil unrest. However, without properly breaking down the term, it is impossible to be identified and acted upon. When people think of fascism, the first thing to come to mind is a fascist leader- Mussolini, Hitler, Francisco Franco- who people look to for guidance on world-view and actions. However, these leaders are not completely initiating the chaos and extremity of a country, but rather harnessing it for their benefit. Take Germany for example. Antisemitism and political extremity was still very much a real issue in Germany before Hitler took control, he just managed to push it to its extremes. The question now becomes what these politicians are harnessing.

A primary one is the idealization of the past. Often during fascist movements, patriarchal and traditional values tend to be on the rise. Fascist societies arise during times of unrest; post-war eras, during economic turmoil, so on and so forth. People want a big change, but they also want something that is comfortable to them, something they are familiar with. A not so revolutionary revolution of sorts. They become so desperate for a so-called return to greatness that they see the past with rose-colored glasses, and ignore the many negatives and reasons society has progressed in the first place. This longing for comfort and familiarity is where anti-intellectualism comes into play. Anti-intellectualism often becomes sthe most dangerous part of a fascist movement, as it prevents any pushback to the extreme actions of fascist leaders and governments. People do not want to put the effort into thinking critically about their situation, and it is so convenient to look at one figure for all the answers. It even gets to a point where people hate intellectualism and conflate it with elitism, referring to intellectuals as “‘eggheads,’ ‘radical snobs’”. That aversion towards critical thinking also makes it easier to turn against people and scapegoat them. Once again, the people they scapegoat are rooted in very familiar and established notions- the fear of “external forces” (immigrants), or greedy, Anti-Christian people (Jews), to name a couple. As people fall into place, they fail to acknowledge the contradictory nature of a fascist state. Fascism promises this idea of unity, with everyone united under the same values and mission. They even make people fear any form of dissent, pushing the idea that “dissent is betrayal”. The people that oppose those values still exist however, and a very clear distinction is drawn as people are thrown into camps, tortured, and or pushed out. They are made to believe that they’re driving out division, when in actuality they’re driving division more than any “fragmented” democracy. The difference, however, is that the space is not made to discuss those differences. A fascist society must push these spaces out- shaming intellectual thinking as previously discussed, but also burning books, limiting access to schools. People are not given the space to think critically, but they are made to believe that it was their choice. Ultimately, fascism and the liberation the fascism promises is an illusion.

For a society to be considered fascist, it must have one, some, or all of the following: extreme nationalism, one sole leader with almost complete power, control over media and production of propaganda, a focus on the glorification of the past, and more. As different periods throughout history have given rise to fascist societies, common denominators that seem to prove the most dangerous to individuals include lack of thought within the people and the manipulation of facts, as intellect and intelligence might go against the dictator and present as a threat. This abandoning of evidence, facts, and personal opinions or thinking dull a nation and allow for the continuation and expansion of said fascist societies. This aspect, however, is also what appeals to many people.

Commonly, fascist regimes have been established because they offered easy solutions to problems that individuals in society didn’t want to face or focus on. Fascism gives people hands to hold onto, since their only role is to just support and listen. Because of this, people don’t have to think, and can instead believe that the ruler has everything figured out and under control. In other words, under fascist societies, people don’t have to think because the leader can think for them.

As modern day issues arise, so does the appeal of fascism. Specifically, in the U.S., there are certain movements that align with fascist characteristics. The Make America Great Again campaign phrase focuses on a glorification of the past, and the return to America’s “true” peak; this aspect is a key commonality in fascist societies, and might ultimately lead to the turning of America into a fascist society. Umberto Eco says that “[in] every Fascist movement, you will find the principal traditionalist thinkers[...] fed on traditionalist, syncretic, and occult elements” (Eco 17). In addition to this, the denial of intellectual facts has been becoming common in more and more debates. As more people choose to disregard information that doesn’t support their personal beliefs and ideologies, the relative leaning towards fascism has been becoming more noticeable. These factors, anti-intellectualism that denies knowledge that might serve as a threat, as well as the push to return to a traditional United States of America that was once “great” illustrates aspects that support the argument that America is becoming fascist.

However, fascism is a form of totalitarianism, with one leader, and America is built upon a democracy. Since several branches of government serve to keep each other in check, and since there are so many politicians who have a voice and power, there is a prevention of absolute control in the country. Although containing aspects of fascism, key constructs in rooted democracy halts the actualization of America becoming fascist. It’s important to consider the future, however, in which nothing is certain. Things are subject to change, along with laws and systems of government. This means that all places, all states, and all countries are susceptible to fascist regimes and movements. Not all right-wing movements are inherently fascist, despite all fascist movements being inherently right-winged. It goes back to the square and rectangle analogy: not all rectangles are squares, but all squares are rectangles.

For a society to become fascist many different characteristics can be present, but, to me, the main ones that need to be there for a society to be considered fascist are irrationalism, extreme nationalism, life for struggle complex, and dissolving individual’s rights. Irrationalism removes the thought process from people’s actions and makes them act just to feel like they are doing something. As Umberto Eco explains in Ur-Fascism this creates a “suspicion of intellectual life [that] has always been a symptom of Ur-Fascism.” Extreme nationalism is more than just patriotism and its main issue is when it instills a belief in the younger generations that they have been given a unique privilege by being born in their country compared to any other one across the world. This creates both an obsession with the inside of a country and a hatred of the outside world. Since a lot of fascism relies on general unhappiness in a population, the life for struggle idea works as fascist societies’ response to fascism. Thus, a society is created where struggle and grief is accepted and even considered good. Finally, the dissolving of individual rights is often a quick consequence of a fascist society. Whether it is through destroying their access to a free democracy or silencing their civil liberties through removal of laws such as habeas corpus, the dismantling of civil rights may appear a lot, but has a large range of effects on citizens. Therefore, the individual should pay the most attention to this characteristic, because it is easiest for them to track their own access to civil liberties.

Fascism was so easily accepted by societies since prior to the fascist government a large grief had struck and harmed the country. Thus, the current climate of the US is different from fascist societies in that a big disaster has not recently hit the country that would lead to a fascist response. Our democratic society is not immune to fascist ideology, because, as we have seen, no country is immune to fascism and there is a danger to believing we are immune. However we are less susceptible than other areas. Especially in the fascism that rose in post World War I Europe there was an unstable democracy that had been trying to shift from monarchy to democracy. While the US government is not the most stable democracy, it has been around for a few centuries and is relatively consistent. Additionally, the geographic size of America would make it more difficult to mobilize such a fascist movement into the government. The area of the US has created many issues before where groups can not centralize across the entire country, which would add to a difficulty present in creating a fascist society.

It is always dangerous to claim that things are inherently one thing or another, and claiming that right-leaning political movements are inherently fascist is no different. It is important to see the flaws and possible fascism that can appear in a political group, however using fascism as a buzzword can often distract from many issues in a group and greatly simplify people’s understanding. It ultimately creates an us vs. them mentality where the other political group is seen as completely 2-dimensional and evil. There is danger in making any such claim, and while fascism should still be closely monitored in the United States, a blanket term on one political party or group can often do more harm than good.

Defining fascism is often difficult yet critical to avoid becoming the boy who cried wolf. There are certain elements that are widely agreed upon like social conservatism, emphasis on traditional values, and authoritarian government. However, any of these may be present in a non-fascist nation, so at the very least fascism requires a combination of many traits as Eco mentioned. In addition to the ones mentioned above, there are symptoms of a fascist society like anti-intellectualism, supremacy of the military, glorification of the past, and worship of a leader. Essentially, fascism is an extreme right wing political movement caused by broad dissatisfaction with the establishment and where people’s freedoms are surrendered (often partially by their own choice) to a leader who promotes oversimplified yet popular solutions for problems. This leads to the greatest danger to society, which is the obsession with the “enemy within,” taking advantage of social identity and fundamental attribution errors to normalize the demonization and even elimination of certain people. The government is then able to carry out a more broad persecution of all those who dissent.

The current situation of the US is not fascist. The system makes things seem a lot more uniform since one party has a majority in every major category, so it seems like only the senate filibuster can really give 49% of the population a voice. That being said, the GOP itself has taken steps in a fascist direction over the past 10 or so years. Extreme nationalism, the demonization of dissent, anti intellectualism, glorification of the past, and worship of a leader are all certainly present. It has shifted towards becoming a radical right party as defined by The Guardian, which means it subscribes to both nativism and authoritarianism. Nativism is clear in general anti-immigrant sentiment and the idea that immigrants (and others) are “poisoning the blood” of the country. The America First movement might seem logical to any conservative or even to other Americans, but the issues come in who is being defined as American and how the movement sees other nations. The demonization of minorities has made clear that there is the idea that the nation should be primarily led by a single racial/religious group. The idolization of the past paired with a perceived national crisis caused by specific groups (immigrants, black Americans, Muslim Americans, and LGBTQ+ Americans) has been used to justify some form of authoritarianism. We haven’t seen this exercised through widespread brutality and murder of politicians, but dehumanization has been used to psychologically justify certain extreme measures. A large portion of the population celebrated the creation of Alligator Alcatraz, a brutal and inhumane prison for immigrants. While the issue is not exclusive to a single side of the political spectrum, many are starting to adopt a culture of brutality against any perceived enemy, which was launched by the Cold War and later the War on Terror.

The US is certainly more stable currently than most nations following WWI. Many of the motivations for extreme action came from extreme adversity. While the American economy may not be what it once was and many people are being impacted, the standard of living is still very high compared to most countries. There is also much more diversity, making it hard to use something like eugenics to justify the destruction of a population. The way people access information is also very different. Anyone can post something online, whether it is an opinion, true fact, or falsehood presented as fact. While this system can make it difficult for people to determine correct information, it is also very hard to create a uniform narrative. Ideologies are not that hard to manipulate through social media, but it is hard to move all of them in a single direction. Right leaning movements are not all fascist just as not all progressive movements are communist or radical. The hyperbolic rhetoric weakens the ability of communities to form bonds since these words are also agents of dehumanization. Rather than seeing another person as someone you could sit down with for a friendly meal, you see them as another Mussolini. This is also dangerous because if a real Mussolini comes to power, people will be insensitive to the warnings.

The most important aspect of a society in order for it to be deemed fascist is its leader. A fascist society has a charismatic and egotistical leader who controls decision making. In order for the leader to be successful though, there needs to be a drive in the people. This could be a problem the leader makes up or draws attention to with a scapegoat for the issues or a divide within the people of the nation. Another factor that’s important, and usually magnified by the leader, is nationalism and romanticization of the past. Without the people thinking that there is a problem only the leader can solve or a way the country should be that only the leader can return, the leader has no support and therefore no control. This is where not being knowledgeable about a subject is really dangerous for citizens in the situation of a fascist leader. If everyone just listens to a leader without considering, “are they really the ones to blame?” or “are our differing opinions that problematic?” fascist leaders use their charisma and propaganda to make sure people are scared and need their help for problems that aren’t real or they made up.

I think in the United States in the current presidential campaign there are aspects of a fascist leader/society. For example, a sharp divide between the political parties of Democrats and Republicans, supported by President Trump parallels the aspect of “creating enemies within” or “dissent” (spoken about in the excerpt from Ur-Fascism. This is also prevalent in the recent bias based deportations. Another aspect of fascist society is a new obsession with traditionalism and a return to before (also discussed in Ur-Fascism), whether that’s through the popularity of Nara Smith’s extremely homemade meals on social media or the MAGA movement. Also certain rights being changed, like reproductive rights, is indicative of fascism regimes. People today are compelled, I think, mostly by the idea of making our country great as it was originally thought to be. Land of opportunity, land of the free. The MAGA movement particularly appeals to those who are wanting America to be what it has previously been thought to be.

Despite these indications of a fascist society, it’s important to note that the United States has a bit of a different situation when it comes to this topic. In other countries with a fascist regime, such as Germany or Italy, their country size and population size was significantly smaller than that of ours: Texas is almost double the size of Germany! For a fascist to take over a country as big as our’s would be difficult, not even considering our checks and balances process here. Also, as far as I’ve seen, there hasn’t been a leader that has the strength to take over such a large and vastly diverse country. We have definitely had charismatic leaders, but ones who can control upwards of 345 million people, I’m not too sure about.

Of course there could be a fascist regime in this country that doesn’t take power by instead dividing the country into a sort of “fascist or not” could be possible, but there would need to be a really strong leader with very passionate participants.

Some characteristics that must be present for a society to be considered fascist are ultranationalism, an authoritarian leader, suppression of political opposition, complete control over everyday decision-making, and the scapegoating of minority groups as enemies of the state. The myth of national rebirth or restoration to former greatness frequently appears in fascist rhetoric. Among these characteristics, ultranationalism combined with scapegoating of vulnerable groups posed the most danger to ordinary people. The most evident example of this is Jewish people in Nazi-Germany. This racial or religious divide is most common in historic examples of Fascism. Yet, there are also political examples, like in Mussolini’s Italy, as Umberto Eco described in Ur-Fascism, where the smaller parties prior to his rule were highly disregarded. These few examples, among the rest, “allowed” for violence and discrimination while dividing communities against themselves. The suppression of democratic institutions, like the Weimar, and free expression meant citizens had no peaceful means to resist or reform. Fascism gained acceptance in the past for several interconnected reasons. Economic crisis and social instability, particularly after WWI and during the Great Depression, created desperation and a desire for strong leadership promising order and prosperity. As a result, many people believed fascist movements would restore national pride and economic security. Democratic institutions were often weak or newly established, just like the Weimar, making them vulnerable to authoritarian challenges. Additionally, traditional elites sometimes supported fascist movements as protections against communism and labor movements, believing they could control these forces once in power.

The truth is that the United States and other democratic nations are currently experiencing characteristics of historic fascist societies. As we have learned through all of our recent classwork, fascism can be found in both the left and the right. This is important in considering current examples of fascism. Examples include heightened nationalism, leaders who attack press freedoms and judicial independence, increased political violence, and rhetoric that demonizes opposition as enemies rather than legitimate political rivals. This has become extremely evident in debating during modern US voting. From the recent New York Mayoral Debate, to Trump vs Biden in the most recent Presidential Race. Instead of supporting themselves and their beliefs, they degrade and compare their opponents weaknesses. This is a prime example of the elitism discussed in Ur-Fascism, which becomes riddled through our society, let alone our most important leadership positions. Now, delving into other examples, including economic anxiety and inequality, which create conditions where people seek strong leaders promising simple solutions. Secondly, cultural and demographic changes can generate anxiety about identity and belonging. Third, distrust in traditional institutions, like democracy, often stemming from real failures and broken promises in local governments. Lastly, and most importantly, the rise of social media, amplifying rhetoric and creating ideas that reinforce extreme views and absurd propaganda.

Despite these comparisons and some consistencies, the United States and other established democracies today differ fundamentally from historical fascist societies in crucial ways. Democracies like the U.S. offer regular contested elections with peaceful transfers of power, independent judiciaries, free press despite challenges, and strong civil society institutions. As a result, the true rule of law generally prevails, rather than the decision of an authoritarian leader like a Mussolini or Hitler. This is the truth, and not very arguable, yet regarding right-leaning political movements and fascism, there is a lot of controversy and I straddle between it being inherent or being hyperbolic rhetoric. As mentioned previously, those who see fascist echoes point to an expression that delegitimizes democratic processes like what he have in the US, dehumanizes opponents and associates minorities as opponents, promotes political violence, and frames political opposition as existential threats to the nation. Some of this seems extreme, yet there are still societies present today that exhibit these ideas, like neo-Nazi groups or even Russia. Contrary to this though, and viewing it as a hyperbole, it is true that passionate political rhetoric has always existed in democracies, that concerns are overblown by political opponents, and that strong conservative positions on immigration, nationalism, or cultural issues don’t constitute fascism. This contrast sets a precedent on the spectrum of political societies currently. Therefore, it is hard to agree with one or the other.