learntoquestion ltq discussions

Fascism is a political ideology that emerges most in times of social, political, and economic upheaval. When democratic systems are failing, it also can thrive. Often, it is ruled by an authoritarian system. It is defined by moments of uncertainty within history and also suppression. Conditions that aid in the rise of Fascism are economic instability, nationalistic movements, the polarization of politicians and parties (and weak institutions overall), and finally propaganda. Fascist societies are normally militaristic and scapegoat a group of people in order to push their narrative further. Economically, if a nation is failing, the population will become insecure with their government. This can be seen in the Weimar Republic, where during the Great Depression there was high inflation and unemployment. This led to Hitler’s Nazi party to gain traction as they promised economic revival. Fascism also targets a sense of national identity, offering a sense of unity. Returning to the idea of scapegoating, this was mostly used by the Nazis against Jew’s and Communists. Often, these groups have come under fire by fascists, not just Hitler. It is important to note how fascism instills a “us vs. them” mentality, giving both a sense of identity and unity while removing those who can be seen as an “issue” to the fascist society. Fascism draws people in through times of uncertainty, often giving a promise that cannot or is impossible to fulfil. One aspect I really wanted to focus on is the political polarization that occurs in Fascist societies. Often common is a charismatic leader, embodying the fascist societies ideals of strength and national pride. This can be seen in Mussolini or Hitler, who promised to lead the nation to rebirth personally. Fascist societies reject democracy, and often thrive. This is ironic to me as in the U.S right now, it is quite polarizing. It can be argued that the U.S itself could be an emerging fascist society. In the article “Does American Fascism Exist?” by New Republic, it discusses how people in our society are leaning into a fascist society. This can be seen through how our political parties are so very divisive and polarized: “Moreover, in eras like our own, in which rampant polarization co-exists with a political structure in which most citizens have no influence, it’s only natural for people to construct struggles that give their lives political meaning.” I disagree with this on some points, including the fact that our government is unified on most points and decides through checks and balances. This allows not only one party to control the government, and ensures democracy is stable. In our world today, there can be examples of neo-fascism taking place. For example, in Hungary, Viktor Orban (the prime minister) openly endorses “illiberal democracy” which can be viewed as a branch of fascism. There are also similarities between fascism and alt-right movements across countries in the world. Fascism arises in societies gripped by fear and uncertainty, offering simple solutions to complex problems. It disillusions the populations and leads to an authoritarian and exclusionary government.

“Fascist politics invokes a pure mythic past tragically destroyed. Depending on how the nation is defined, the mythic past may be religiously pure, racially pure, culturally pure, or all of the above.” This is an excerpt from Jason Stanley’s novel How Fascism Works-The Politics of Us and Them. However, the notion of a mythic past is not the only characteristic of a fascist society–after all, Greece or Egypt have a much more “mythic past” compared to Germany, and we would not consider those countries fascist. That leads to the point that a fascist society cannot arise without a complete sense of disrepair in the country with great class divides and a hatred of a certain group, be it based on religion, class, race, or a combination of the three. In Nazi Germany, there was an extreme economic crisis, where the value of the German mark rose by one trillion times its original value within five years. In addition, A fascist society must have a strong dictator and extreme nationalism and an unwavering sense of country over individual. There is also a sense of hate towards minorities and others, and a sense of wanting to bring back a former glory. Fascism is easily accepted in times of uncertainty since it provides a strong and powerful group and a sense of unity. It is much easier to accept a fascist group, because if one doesn’t, they are seen as the enemy and part of the out group. In the case of the Nazi’s, they can be imprisoned, tortured, and killed.

And yes, fascism can certainly be appealing, especially in tough times. It brings a sense of unity, the fight for a common cause, and newfound strength and belief in one's country. For Germany, especially after the humiliation of World War I, this feeling was welcomed and extremely important to German citizens, especially veterans. As I mentioned before, the Nazis rose to power at a perfect time for them, a time of complete German chaos. Their extreme policies were seen as a sign to fix the country by many, and by the time they escalated, there was no stopping them.

As horrible as the Nazis were, the human race is not done with fascism. Some nations are definitely experiencing fascist tendencies which we have seen in the past. A major theme is a focus on preventing immigration, thus preserving a “master/dominant race.” We have seen it right here in the United States, as the deportation of some 13 million immigrants is a policy which our president elect ran on (and that idea clearly has support). Outside of the United States, the emphasis on halting immigration has become more popular in Europe as well. It is often based on a fear of losing our cultural identity and nationalism. The article “Populist, Nativist, Fascist” explains this phenomenon: “Nativism is the belief that “states should be inhabited exclusively by members of the ‘native group’, and that ‘non-native elements’ fundamentally threaten the homogeneous nation state. That explains the core focus on immigration of radical right parties such as Marine Le Pen’s National Rally (RN) in France, Freedom Party (PVV) in the Netherlands, Vox in Spain or Fidesz in Hungary.”

Another characteristic of fascism that I did not previously mention is the emphasis on information, notably the hiding of information and the spreading of false information. The Nazis had a minister of propaganda, and gave everyone a radio so that they could listen to the latest Nazi controlled news. They also burned books which they considered dangerous. In America, news hosts and politicians spread conspiracy theories, and social media is full of conspiracies and harmful stereotypes. The American right, for the most part, has attempted to ban many books recently, with the number of challenged titles increasing to over 4,000 in 2023 alone.

Fascism is, at its core, an excuse for people to avoid real issues in their lives and accept the persecution of others as a byproduct of national advancement. For fascism to be present in a society, the most important first step is fear, and a person or government that is able to harness that fear to their advantage. In times of struggle, people are more likely to turn to radical change, especially when they feel powerless at their current status, and history has proven that nothing unites people better than a common enemy. More often than not, fascist regimes target a group which takes up a very small portion of the population, and in reality pose a negligible threat, if any, to the national identity. Strategiously, this makes sense, as it is generally much easier to fear and hate someone you don’t know, and a group with less prevalence will have a much harder time fighting back against the majority. At the start of World War II, Jews made up around 0.75% of the population, and already had very little power to enact change in society. Additionally, a crucial aspect of facism comes from the belief that one racial or ethnic group is fundamentally superior to another, and therefore has the right to elevate themselves at the cost of the “other.” According to Ziegler, “At the center of the anti-enlightenment lies the idea that humans are all different, should not be treated equally, should not be handled according to their deeds, and should not be respected as individuals” (Ziegler, 2021, p.24). Facism requires people to not only ignore the flaws with this idea, but fully believe its claim. This leads to ideas such as social darwinism and eugenics, in which people fear not only the actions of another group but the very makeup of their genetics. And this belief, one way or another, inevitably leads to genocide. But facism cannot be executed all at once. It requires gradual, calculated steps, which deter people from fighting back, even when they don’t support the change. By going step by step, fascist regimes force people to adjust to the new “normal,” rather than see it as radical change. Then, by the time people see how much things have changed, it's already too late. In the article No Time to Think, a college professor reflects on his experience with this, explaining, “when everyone is transformed, no one is transformed.” Fascism takes fear, it takes anger, and it takes apathy. In that sense, there are clear signs of the threat of fascism in our world today. Many nations in recent years have seen an increase in right-wing ideology, and common public fears surrounding immigration and threats to national identity. While our world is drastically different than it was in WWII, patterns in our history have shown that we are in no way immune. On the other hand however, it’s difficult to discern whether the changes we are experiencing are in line with the general wave back and forth between left and right political systems, or whether they are something bigger. Looking at the US, many people would consider Trump to be a fascist, while others see him as a joke with no real threat (although this was also how Hitler and Moussilini were widely viewed). There is undoubtedly rising polarization and tension between people in the country, which is arguably the real threat, rather than any individual, such as Trump. Given enough anger and fear between people, fascism becomes almost inevitable, though it’s unclear if our country is headed towards that today.

I agree with the pieces of fascism outlined in “The Psychology of Fascism” by Kenneth Fiegenbaum: a charismatic authoritarian, the “positive evaluation of violence,” and the projection of issues onto another group or groups. Excessive stress on masculinity may also be a factor but this could also be seen as an expression of the third factor. Something that is very difficult to describe is the difference between a dictatorship and a fascist regime. Notably there is a more functioning government in a fascist regime that contributes to the decision making process. Fascism also must be radical far-right and be based around nationalism. This is somewhat ironic to me, historically the person who had all 24 fasces– the symbol from which we get the word facism– was a dictator. However, in the modern day these powers are controlled by a dictator or autocrat but also by a populist movement.

Fascism is only appealing to those who are frustrated or insulted and who wish to lash out. In the past, those who can make the outlandish promises of easy change and improvement have been popular. It is much easier for people to blame the issue on some conspiracy than to take responsibility. National pride is a defining and unifying factor so it can easily bring people together. Historically, promises of restoring national pride, “fixing” the economy and safety were some promises. Now Hungary’s near dictator Viktor Orban for example, has used national pride and anti-immigrant policy to gain support. This behavior toward immigrants is emulated in Italy however Italy still has more fair and equal elections.

In the more distant past there have been several openly fascist organizations in America. There has been a resurgence in fascist behavior recently: the January 6th attempt to overturn the democratic process, hateful acts against minority groups, a swing to the radical right, frustration over the economy and limiting of civil liberties. In the article “Populist, Nativist, Neofascist? A Lexicon of Europe’s Far Right?” by The Guardian the variety of far right groups and their general increase in popularity is a sign indicating a neo-fascist era in Europe. Russia could also be seen in a neo-fascist era under Putin. This doesn’t mean that all of these countries that are having radical right wing momentum or more authoritarian governments are fascist. Some might better fit the nomenclature of totalitarianism, authoritarianism, dictatorship, oligarchy, single-party democracy, or autocracy but these forms of government with little political voice for the masses is dangerous currently will only get more harmful for the people in those countries but also beyond as support spreads and these governments take root. Constitutional government, freedom of press, freedom to protest, religious freedom, political freedom, and democracy were all once revolutionary ideas which monarchs tried to suppress. Now democracy is in control but ideologies which are harmful to the current way of life are reemerging. It is hard for generations which do not remember the horrors and reality of the past to be correctly fearful and observant so education and truth are necessary.

In societies troubled by political, social, and economic turmoil, fascism easily manifests, with its ideologies quickly adopted by ordinary people. When World War I finally came to an end, the start of a new battle had seemed to begin - nations across the globe were suffering and the world seemed to enter a state of despair and monotony. In Germany, specifically, the once great power was promptly devastated by financial ruin, looming horrors of the war, and an extremely fragile political body. Nation-wide fear and outrage emanated, making it incredibly easy for people to become susceptible to radical ideologies that seemed to promise even a hint of change. Leaders like Hitler and Mussolini were able to capitalize on these widespread feelings of resentment and uncertainty, because in times where solutions appeared scarce, they offered a solution. Hitler’s promise to return to Germany’s era of prosperity was appealing to many. He incrementally radicalized his policies and was strategic with how often he was implementing change, allowing people to accustom themselves to this new sense of “normal.” In such challenging times, fascism also presented people with a scapegoat. Though Jews comprised a marginally low percentage of the German population and posed no threat to German society whatsoever, Hitler blamed the shortcomings of the nation entirely on them and deliberately targeted his policies towards them. He was able to shift people’s feelings of resentment onto such a small group of people and they soon shared both a common sense of hatred and ultra-nationalistic ways of thinking. Naturally, this speaks to human’s nature to categorize ourselves into “us vs. them,” and fuel our frustrations towards the “enemy within.” In The Psychology of Fascism, William Reich touches on this idea and proposes that humans use “character armor” - it is “ formed as a chronic result of the clash between instinctual demands and an outer world which frustrates these demands,” is “created by repression,” and thus, “negative feelings about oneself are projected against others.” The negative feelings shared by such a large group of people make them more vulnerable to developing this “character armor.” For a nation to be considered fascist, it encompasses these components of glorification of the past, identification of a scapegoat, and worship of a leader. I also believe that massive propaganda and media control is a major characteristic of fascist societies. Fascist leaders often manipulate what is consumed by the general populace so that they aren’t exposed to foreign ideas and practices. Much of Hitler’s success is owed to this tight control and manipulation. While I do think that America today exhibits these characteristics to some extent, I don’t necessarily believe that it is experiencing a neo-fascist era. However, I do think that we have the potential to slip into a fascist regime, as we aren’t entirely immune to it, even with a democratic government. Hitler and Mussolini weren’t able to rise to success on their own - they gained the support of millions by emphasizing the danger of the common enemy and exploiting feelings of concern. For this reason, it may not be productive to label Trump as a fascist but instead recognize how he uses similar tactics to gain support and mobilize his supporters against his opponents, because ultimately, this is how fascism can stem. It emerges over a gradual course of time, and we only realize the severity of it when it is too late.

Fascism manifests in a society when there is a type of crisis which it is hard for people to address, societies which experience problems like economic challenges, political or social challenges lead to vulnerability to fascist ideologies. Fascism appeals to people because it gives them a sense of support and a sense of restoring order, and giving them a sense of purpose when there is nothing else that they can do, and want to solve these challenges and chaos. This can even affect other people’s lives, and other people’s freedom. Economic problems like unemployment, inflation leads to resentment, and so fascists use these problems to their advantage, and offer solutions like nationalism, and authoritarianism. Based on what was said in class, it is emphasized that the desire for power is a key way to the start of fascism, it is not about the care of the people, but the care of the leader and what they want. The key characteristic of fascist societies is authoritarianism, as fascist societies are typically led by a dictatorial leadership who wants high power and wants loyalty from the people and citizens. Another characteristic is a form of nationalism, and trying to emphasize the identity of a particular group, and usually not kicking out outsiders, and those who do not belong in these particular groups, and fascist regimes often want military strength, and prioritize this, and often glorify war, and take advantage of people’s emotions and feelings during this. Fascist also take advantage of the media and what is being posted, for their own gain, so that the media can be on their side, and follow in line with what these leaders believe, so it can spread, propaganda plays a major role in key ideas and opinions being spread among each other. Another key point is fascist leaders blaming minorities for problems, like Hitler blaming the Jews and wanting everyone to turn against them, even though there was such a small population 500,000 among millions of other people. People find fascism appealing because of the sense of security and order in chaotic times. The promise of a fascist leader who will take control, and bring the nation together gives people that sense of hope and security, especially during chaotic times because people are more vulnerable when emotional. It allows for people to regain their pride which was lost, especially when people feel as if they have lost their culture, and identity of who they are. It allows for a sense of community of people having the same goal of unity and being one, all under a charismatic leader who makes many promises to their society. Yes, there are nations which are experiencing what could be considered as a neo-fascist era. Many leaders have adapted nationalism, and been against certain minority groups and anti-immigrants. They often emphasize against immigrants and are usually racist. An example of this is the United States, which might not be particularly a fascist country, but have been involved in far-right movements under the influence of authoritarian leaders like Donald Trump, whose ideas about anti-immigrants and making “America great again”. “The one consistent quality the term “fascism” has retained since the 1930s is its negative valence. Almost no one uses it positively; instead, to borrow Kuklick’s acid description, the term is the verbal equivalent of “throwing a tomato at a speaker at a public event.” “Fascism,” Kuklick shows, “does not so much isolate a thing as it does some stigmatizing.” (The New Republic). It is shown how fascism is not used as a compliment but rather an insult in American discussions, since it is not as easy to be fascist in the United States because there are so many ethnic groups, but it is something that needs to be fixed, and has more of an emotional reaction.

Fascism manifests itself in society during times of crisis like economic conflict, social problems, or a time of instability. During that time of instability, people start to lose faith in the government’s support. It creates an environment where people feel uncomfortable and anxious so they just want change. They want any type of change and sometimes with any circumstance. Fascist movements can control people when promising a sense of security for them shown through a revival of their nation and/or giving a sense of purpose to those who are vulnerable at that time. Characteristics of a fascist society include an authoritarian leader, a promotion of nationalism, and propaganda. The way they can gain such power is because of the manipulation of the people, this can be done with scapegoating which is when one makes an enemy of minorities. They reject democracy and find a way to create a hierarchy of social order. Fascist ideologies are appealing when a clear solution is shown and use that to blame others for what the overall problem is. Creating an enemy so quickly is very problematic because just blaming one based on what others say shown through propaganda proves that they just want a simple solution, regardless of what it takes to get there. The great importance of how that happens is fully due to the vulnerability of people and the instability of their societies. Wanting to blame others and doing it to get what they want creates a strong sense of community that continues to be glorified through nationalism. When they use the “Us vs. Them” theory, making it seem like they are of the superior group and that others don’t matter as much. The instability that is common in many different countries is what makes people so susceptible to the authoritarian leader. They need and desire stability so it doesn’t matter what they do when they are achieving that goal.

Some countries are experiencing what could be considered a neo-fascist era like India and Turkey because of their authoritarian leadership and their nationalist ways. They both also have restrictions on freedom. The trends of fascism happen often because of shifts in society and questions of stability. I think that the US has qualities of fascism, especially propaganda because society now has a really big influence on what social media tells them, causing and creating different ideas. Democracy isn’t immune to fascist ideologies because it still has many weak and negative aspects that can be looked at or taken advantage of. The article “Does American Fascism Exist” from the New Republic explores the history of the use of fascism in the United States. It relates to the constant debating of politics in America. It looks at whether America’s tendency to have authoritarian-like leaders, like the Trump era, contrasts with the positive look of violence and nationalism. It talks about how there might not be an immediate consensus of labeling America as a fascist country, but there is a look that emphasizes the rise of right-wing authoritarianism.

Fascism is an authoritarian and extreme nationalist ideology that manifests in societies during times of crisis. For example, in times of economic instability, political fragmentation, or social turmoil. Its government rules with fear and promises change to those who desire for stability and order. Fascism gained popular support especially post-World War I in Italy and Germany, with leaders like Mussolini and Hitler. They promised national revival, ruined democracies, and targeted minority groups. In fascism, power is centralized in a single leader or party that exercises utmost power and suppresses dissent. Extreme nationalism is often present, stemming from racial or ethnic purity, and it fosters hostility towards those seen as “outsiders”. A cult of personality around the leader, censorship, propaganda, and militarism also defines fascist regimes. These traits can be seen in Nazi Germany with its laws against Jews and military expansion, and Adolf Hitler as their ultimate leader.

Fascism’s appeal lies in its promise of stability and unity during times of chaos. Leaders like Mussolini and Hitler presented themselves as saviors who are capable of restoring order and reputation. Their vision of national revival especially resonated with those who felt disillusioned by economic hardships and losses. Extreme nationalism creates a sense of community among "insiders" while marginalizing "outsiders." Nativism is a belief that "states should be inhabited exclusively by members of the ‘native group’, and that ‘non-native elements’ fundamentally threaten the homogeneous nation state," (Henley) aligns with extreme nationalism in its division of society into "insiders" and "outsiders." This creates a false sense of unity among the dominant group by scapegoating minorities as threats to national identity. Like Nazi Germany which used nativist rhetoric to marginalize groups and enforce conformity within the majority. In modern contexts, such as during Donald Trump’s presidency, policies like the Muslim travel ban reflected similar fears, reinforcing exclusionary ideas and eroding diversity. Its successes, such as Germany’s economic recovery and infrastructure projects, masked its oppressive and destructive long-term consequences, making it attractive during its rise; many Germans were blind to the true nature of the Nazi regime because they were captivated by promises of a restored economy and national strength. The regime's propaganda portrayed these early achievements as evidence of effective leadership, diverting attention from its human rights abuses, and the persecution of Jews.

Elements of neo-fascism are evident in modern societies, including the USA during Donald Trump’s presidency. U.S. remains a democracy, but Trump’s policies reflected traits that historically align with fascism. His authoritarian tendencies were seen in attacks on democratic institutions, such as stating the media is the enemy, and refusing to accept the 2020 election results, leading to the Capitol riot on January 6, 2021. Trump’s agenda promoted extreme nationalism, with policies like the Muslim travel ban and his depiction of immigrants as threats to American safety and culture. He cultivated a cult of personality, with his followers viewing him as a savior who could restore the nation to its former glory. Trump also emphasized "law and order" rhetoric, often targeting protest movements like Black Lives Matter and hesitated to condemn far-right groups, showing support for militaristic and exclusionary ideas. The appeal of Trump’s neo-fascist tendencies stemmed from the same factors that previously fueled fascism. Economic insecurity, particularly in regions impacted by the destruction of industries, led many to embrace his promises to protect American jobs. The United States is not a fascist state, but Trump’s presidency highlights how neo-fascist elements can present themselves in a democratic society.

Fascism manifests within a society through ultra-nationalistic ideals which propel into a dictatorship. This tends to happen when there is some sort of social or economic crisis which can either be like a war which would be external or an economic crisis that happens internally such as democracy failing or the economy itself failing. This is what causes the hypernationalism to take place because as people, we gravitate towards automatically wanting to defend our country. Fascism also manifests through having one particularly leader at the head of the fascist movement. This leader presents themself as a charismatic leader who claims they will save the nation or for example, “make [it] great again”. Fascist movements also progress a lot through propaganda. Propaganda is used to promote false ideologies to manipulate people and to make the fascist regime look like its necessary in order for the country to prosper. The government may also take very extreme measures, threatening the people that if they don’t follow the fascist regime, they can be met with violence or other punishments. For a society to be considered fascist, some characteristics that would need to take place would be “an ultra nationalistic society, a leader who is worshipped among the people, a military who is seen as supreme, a demand for territorial expansion, anti-intellectualism, obsession with ‘enemies within’ [an us vs. them mindset] and ‘crimes against the nation’, violence, terror, and lack of human rights, having enemies, massive propaganda and media control, value placed on the youth, a return to traditional gender roles, and the glorification of the past and ethnicity. Fascist ideals can be so appealing to people when they need something to turn to. This is social identity theory. People want to be a part of a group and feel the need to be a part of something important. These people eventually showcase the social confirmation theory which occurs when the violence takes place and in a sense, they let it slide or encourage it. People may also just believe that the society they are in currently, is just in turmoil, due to some sort of economic crisis, and want this said society to have some sort of stability which can be found through a dictatorship or fascist regime. It may help people to feel safe due to the mass propaganda that is spewed out to them during times where they may not feel their society is in a safe situation. There are currently countries today that are experiencing what could be considered a neo-fascist era. For example, as lightly mentioned earlier, the United States far right could be considered neo-fascist. Earlier, a campaign quote Donald Trump uses a lot was mentioned, “Make America Great Again”. Fascist movements tend to have a dictator who believes they are “fixing” their country or returning it to its glorified past. The far right tends to look to Donald Trump as if he’s some sort of dictator ruling them. He himself spews out propaganda towards his followers making false claims that they automatically believe. He also puts emphasis on a very ultra nationalistic regime that his followers tend to follow.

The manifestation of fascism in a society is typically a reaction to economic, social, or political instability. The case of WWII Germany is a prime example of the causes that lead to the development of facism. Germany at this time exemplified characteristics of economic, social, and political instability. Economic instability, such as extreme inflation and unemployment that the Germans faced due to the Versailles treaty, causes a sense of disillusionment towards the government among the citizens. This disillusionment leads these citizens to seek out radical solutions for the problems that the current government is seemingly unable to solve. Political dysfunction can also cause disillusionment; in the case of Weimar republic Germany the plethora of political parties but ineffectiveness of the institutions already in place caused Germans to have a weakened sense of trust for the government. Existing social issues, such as historic antisemitism and humiliation due to the loss of a war, in combination with charismatic leadership and propaganda machines can manipulate ordinary citizens fears and insecurities about society, leading them to believe a militarized state that unites in nationalistic ideals would be a more effective government than democratic institutions.

The centralization and militarization of a state that focuses on nationalistic ideals and the scapegoating of a group of people characterize fascist societies. Fascist regimes often control all areas of life including entertainment, radio, newspaper, etc through the use of violence and propaganda. The scapegoating of one group of people is also a key aspect of fascist society. The the case of Nazi Germany Jewish people were viewed as “other.” This othering of certain ethnic groups provides a justification for the turmoil that the society might be facing as well as a point of unification for the nation as they come together in their hatred of this group.

Individuals might find fascist ideology initially appealing because of their strong desire for economic, political, and/or social change. In societies that are facing intense struggles in these areas the citizens become so desperate for change that they are willing to support radical alternatives that would not necessarily lead to positive outcomes. Fascism often starts as a false promise for security, clarity, and revival which would seem appealing to a society facing chaos. It is, however, important to note that the promises of the fascist regimes are not successful in fact they only exacerbate the conditions in the region, as seen with Germany and the start of a second world war.

Many might argue that there are several nations that are experiencing what could be considered a neo-fascist era, in fact some state that the US itself might be experiencing it with the transfer of power. Just as in Weimar Germany many nations today continue to face economic, social, and political problems, such as inflation, increased cost of living, protection of minority rights, and immigration crises. In The Guardian’s article “How Europe’s Far Right is Marching Steadily into the Mainstream” Jon Henley states, in regards to modern day Germany, that “Opinion polls suggest that at the national level – faced with inflation, recession, rising refugee numbers and a fractious coalition government – voters favour the xenophobic, anti-Islam AfD more than the chancellor, Olaf Scholz’s, Social Democrats.” Xenophobic and Islamophobic ideas within Germany can be exploited by political parties. This exploitation would lead to the formation of an “outgroup” as well as the presentation of the new political party as an alternative to the disliked government already in power.